History of reuse of shipping containers
With the green premise growing in popularity across the globe, more and more people are turning to cargo container structures for green alternatives. There are countless numbers of empty, unused shipping containers around the world just sitting on shipping docks taking up space. The reason for this is that it’s too expensive for a country to ship empty containers back to their origin. In most cases, it’s just cheaper to buy new containers from Asia. The result is an extremely high surplus of empty shipping containers that are just waiting to become a home, office, apartment, school, dormitory, studio, emergency shelter, and everything else.
There are copious benefits to the so-called shipping container architecture model. A few of these advantages include: strength, durability, availability, and cost. The abundance and relative cheapness (some sell for as little as $900) of these containers during the last decade comes from the deficit in manufactured goods coming from North America. These manufactured goods come to North America, from Asia and Europe, in containers that often have to be shipped back empty at a considerable expense. Therefore, new applications are sought for the used containers that have reached their final destination.
On November 23, 1987, Phillip C. Clark file for a United States patent describe as a “Method for converting one or more steel shipping containers into a habitable building at a building site and the product thereof.” This patent was granted on August 8, 1989 as patent 4854094. The diagrams and information contained within the documentation of the patent appear to lay the groundwork for many current shipping container architectural ideas.
In 2006, Southern California architect Peter DeMaria, designed the first two-story shipping container home in the U.S. as an approved structural system under the strict guidelines of the nationally recognized Uniform Building Code. Even more impressive is Lot-Tek’s Puma City, which was built with abundant material at a low price, without substituting design quality. As such, there are many great examples of shipping container architecture in the world.
Shipping container architecture gets a lot of encouraging coverage in the design world as a trendy green alternative to traditional building materials, and seems like a smart choice for people looking for eco-consciousness. However, there are a lot of downsides to building with cargo containers. For instance, the coatings used to make the containers durable for ocean transport also happen to contain a number of harmful chemicals, such as chromate, phosphorous, and lead-based paints. Moreover, wood floors that line the majority of shipping container buildings are infused with hazardous chemical pesticides like arsenic and chromium to keep pests away.
Reusing containers seems to be a low energy alternative, however, few people factor in the amount of energy required to make the box habitable. The entire structure needs to be sandblasted bare, floors need to be replaced, and openings need to be cut with a torch or fireman’s saw. The average container eventually produces nearly a thousand pounds of hazardous waste before it can be used as a structure. All of this, coupled with the fossil fuels required to move the container into place with heavy machinery, contribute significantly to its ecological footprint.
Another downside is that dimensionally, an individual container creates awkward living/working spaces. Taking into account added insulation, you have a long narrow box with less than eight foot ceiling. To make an adequate sized space, multiple boxes need to be combined, which again, requires energy.
In many areas, it is cheaper and less energy to build a similarly scaled structure using wood framing. Shipping container homes makes sense where resources are scarce, containers are in abundance, and where people are in need of immediate shelter such as, developing nations and disaster relief. While there are certainly striking and innovative examples of architecture using cargo containers, it is typically not the best method of design and construction.
There are copious benefits to the so-called shipping container architecture model. A few of these advantages include: strength, durability, availability, and cost. The abundance and relative cheapness (some sell for as little as $900) of these containers during the last decade comes from the deficit in manufactured goods coming from North America. These manufactured goods come to North America, from Asia and Europe, in containers that often have to be shipped back empty at a considerable expense. Therefore, new applications are sought for the used containers that have reached their final destination.
On November 23, 1987, Phillip C. Clark file for a United States patent describe as a “Method for converting one or more steel shipping containers into a habitable building at a building site and the product thereof.” This patent was granted on August 8, 1989 as patent 4854094. The diagrams and information contained within the documentation of the patent appear to lay the groundwork for many current shipping container architectural ideas.
In 2006, Southern California architect Peter DeMaria, designed the first two-story shipping container home in the U.S. as an approved structural system under the strict guidelines of the nationally recognized Uniform Building Code. Even more impressive is Lot-Tek’s Puma City, which was built with abundant material at a low price, without substituting design quality. As such, there are many great examples of shipping container architecture in the world.
Shipping container architecture gets a lot of encouraging coverage in the design world as a trendy green alternative to traditional building materials, and seems like a smart choice for people looking for eco-consciousness. However, there are a lot of downsides to building with cargo containers. For instance, the coatings used to make the containers durable for ocean transport also happen to contain a number of harmful chemicals, such as chromate, phosphorous, and lead-based paints. Moreover, wood floors that line the majority of shipping container buildings are infused with hazardous chemical pesticides like arsenic and chromium to keep pests away.
Reusing containers seems to be a low energy alternative, however, few people factor in the amount of energy required to make the box habitable. The entire structure needs to be sandblasted bare, floors need to be replaced, and openings need to be cut with a torch or fireman’s saw. The average container eventually produces nearly a thousand pounds of hazardous waste before it can be used as a structure. All of this, coupled with the fossil fuels required to move the container into place with heavy machinery, contribute significantly to its ecological footprint.
Another downside is that dimensionally, an individual container creates awkward living/working spaces. Taking into account added insulation, you have a long narrow box with less than eight foot ceiling. To make an adequate sized space, multiple boxes need to be combined, which again, requires energy.
In many areas, it is cheaper and less energy to build a similarly scaled structure using wood framing. Shipping container homes makes sense where resources are scarce, containers are in abundance, and where people are in need of immediate shelter such as, developing nations and disaster relief. While there are certainly striking and innovative examples of architecture using cargo containers, it is typically not the best method of design and construction.
Shipping Container Background
Shipping Containers have many names, which can be a bit confusing. However shipping containers are standard shapes, sizes and construction virtually everywhere in the world. When an ISO shipping container is used solely for shipping it can have four main names. - Shipping Container - ISO Container - Cargo Container - Conex Box When an ISO Shipping Container is used soley for building construction or storage it is then called an ISBU module, or - ISBU - Intermodal Steel Building Unit - GreenCube What Is An ISBU ISBU is from the name Inter-modal Steel Building Unit. Since 2006 the Shipping Containers have become very popular and trendy for use as home, storage, prefab, and business construction purposes. Since 1954 the principle use for Shipping Containers is for International ocean shipping, truck, or train freight, and occasional secure storage. Only recently has the world begun to realize their value in housing, office construction, storage and emergency shelters. The possibilities are virtually endless. Sizes- The common shipping containers are 20' and 40' dry containers and the shipping industry refers to all containers and statistics as TEW, meaning twenty foot containers. A 40' shipping container would be referred to as 2 TEW for your easy calculating. Other sizes of containers are certainly available such as 8', 10' and 53'. These sizes are specially made but are a minority. The common types of ISO shipping containers are: - 20' GP - 40' GP - 20' HQ (meaning High Cube. The difference is 1 foot taller than a standard 20' GP) - 40' HQ (meaning High Cube. The difference is 1 foot taller than a standard 40' GP) - Open top - Open side - Freezer, or Refrigerated are also available, but are not recommended for ISBU construction.
History of Shipping Containers Many people think the Shipping Container was invented in China -- not true. The first shipping container was invented and patented in 1956 by an American named Malcolm Mc Lean. Mc Lean was not an ocean shipper, but was a trucker and by 1956 he owned the largest trucking fleet in the South and the fifth largest trucking company in all the United States. He saved his money and bought his first truck in 1934. During those years all cargo was loaded and unloaded in odd sized wooden crates. The process was very slow and certainly not standardized. After observing this slow and inefficient process for 20 years, he finally decided to step back and develop some standardized way of loading cargo from trucks to ships and warehouses. Malcolm then purchased Pan Atlantic Tanker Company, which owned a bunch of fairly rusted tankers. He re-named the new shipping company Sea-Land Shipping. With this shipping company he could finally experiment with better ways to load and un-load trucks and ships. After many experiments, his final design is what we know now as the Shipping Container. ...super strong, uniform design, theft resistant, stackable, easy to load, unload, truck, rail, ship, and certainly store. Matson, on the West coast of the US also attempted the container concept, but failed sorely. The final boost to standardize Mc Lean's concept was the US Navy and by the early 70's were globally accepted. So in fact, although Mc Lean had the first concept and working system in 1956, it was the US military who finally did what was necessary to make the ISO shipping container accepted by every shipping line and every country of the world. Because it was so much faster and organized to load-unload, the cost of loading freight was reduced by more than 90%. Thus, the cost of products you sell or buy were reduced greatly because of the invention and standardization of the ISO shipping container.
The Shipping Process
Shipping is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo by sea, and is extended in US English to refer to transport by land or air (UK English: "carriage"). "Logistics", a term borrowed from the military environment, is also fashionably used in the same sense.
Land or "ground" shipping can be by train or by truck (UK English: lorry). In air and sea shipments, ground transport is required to take the cargo from its place of origin to the airport or seaport and then to its destination because it is not always possible to establish a production facility near ports due to limited coastlines of countries. Ground transport is typically more affordable than air, but more expensive than sea especially in developing countries like India, where inland infrastructure is not efficient.
Shipment of cargo by trucks, directly from the shipper's place to the destination, is known as a door to door shipment and more formally as multimodal transport. Trucks and trains make deliveries to sea and air ports where cargo is moved in bulk.
Much shipping is done aboard actual ships. An individual nation's fleet and the people that crew it are referred to as its merchant navyor merchant marine. Merchant shipping is like lifeblood to the world economy, carrying 90% of international trade with 102,194 commercial ships worldwide.
Land or "ground" shipping can be by train or by truck (UK English: lorry). In air and sea shipments, ground transport is required to take the cargo from its place of origin to the airport or seaport and then to its destination because it is not always possible to establish a production facility near ports due to limited coastlines of countries. Ground transport is typically more affordable than air, but more expensive than sea especially in developing countries like India, where inland infrastructure is not efficient.
Shipment of cargo by trucks, directly from the shipper's place to the destination, is known as a door to door shipment and more formally as multimodal transport. Trucks and trains make deliveries to sea and air ports where cargo is moved in bulk.
Much shipping is done aboard actual ships. An individual nation's fleet and the people that crew it are referred to as its merchant navyor merchant marine. Merchant shipping is like lifeblood to the world economy, carrying 90% of international trade with 102,194 commercial ships worldwide.
Types of Shipping Containers
20' GP Standard Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' High Cube Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 9'6"
40' Double Door Container
Exterior Dimension: 40' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
40' High Cube Container
Exterior Dimension: 40' x 8' x 9'6"
40' High Cube Open Side Container
Exterior Dimension: 40' x 8' x 9'6"
20' Open Side Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' Storage Container with 4 Side Doors
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' Open Top Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' Half Height Open Top Ore Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 4'3"
High Cube also Available (4'9" Height)
20' Platform Container
Exterior Dimension: Contact us for details
20' Double Door Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" H
These are just the sizes for the shipping containers. they also sell home containers, military containers and custom designed ones for an extra fee.
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' High Cube Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 9'6"
40' Double Door Container
Exterior Dimension: 40' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
40' High Cube Container
Exterior Dimension: 40' x 8' x 9'6"
40' High Cube Open Side Container
Exterior Dimension: 40' x 8' x 9'6"
20' Open Side Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' Storage Container with 4 Side Doors
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' Open Top Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" Height)
20' Half Height Open Top Ore Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 4'3"
High Cube also Available (4'9" Height)
20' Platform Container
Exterior Dimension: Contact us for details
20' Double Door Container
Exterior Dimension: 20' x 8' x 8'6"
High Cube also Available (9'6" H
These are just the sizes for the shipping containers. they also sell home containers, military containers and custom designed ones for an extra fee.
COST EFFECTIVNESS
most units that are sold used cost approximately between 1,000 and 4,000 dollars before delivery which makes it seem a little excessive for the amount of area that they cover. A positive is that they are very durable and can make it easier to produce different structures.
Steel History
The mass-production of cheap steel only became possible after the introduction of the Bessemer process, named after its brilliant inventor, the British metallurgist Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898). Bessemer reasoned that carbon in molten pig iron unites readily with oxygen, so a strong blast of air through molten pig iron should convert the pig iron into steel by reducing its carbon content. In 1856 Bessemer designed what he called a converter, a large, pear-shaped receptacle with holes at the bottom to allow the injection of compressed air. Bessemer filled it with molten pig iron, blew compressed air through the molten metal, and found that the pig iron was indeed emptied of carbon and silicon in just a few minutes; moreover, instead of freezing up from the blast of cold air, the metal became even hotter and so remained molten. Subsequent experimentation by another British inventor, Robert Mushet, showed that the air blast actually removed too much carbon and left too much oxygen behind in the molten metal. This made necessary the addition of a compound of iron, carbon, and manganese calledspiegeleisen (or spiegel for short): the manganese removes the oxygen in the form of manganese oxide, which passes into the slag, and the carbon remains behind, converting the molten iron into steel. (Ferromanganese serves a similar purpose.) The blast of air through the molten pig iron, followed by the addition of a small quantity of molten spiegel, thus converts the whole large mass of molten pig iron into steel in just minutes, without the need for any additional fuel (as contrasted with the days, and tons of extra fuel and labor, required for puddling and cementation).
One shortcoming of the initial Bessemer process, however, was that it did not remove phosphorus from the pig iron. Phosphorus makes steel excessively brittle. Initially, therefore, the Bessemer process could only be used on pig iron made from phosphorus-free ores. Such ores are relatively scarce and expensive, as they are found in only a few places (e.g. Wales and Sweden, where Bessemer got his iron ore, and upper Michigan). In 1876, the Welshman Sidney Gilchrist Thomas discovered that adding a chemically basic material such as limestone to the converter draws the phosphorus from the pig iron into the slag, which floats to the top of the converter where it can be skimmed off, resulting in phosphorus-free steel.(This is called the basic Bessemer process, or the Thomas basic process.) This crucial discovery meant that vast stores of iron ore from many regions of the world could be used to make pig iron for Bessemer converters, which in turn led to skyrocketing production of cheap steel in Europe and the U.S. In the U.S., for example, in 1867, 460,000 tons of wrought iron rails were made and sold for $83 per ton; only 2550 tons of Bessemer steel rails were made, fetching a price of up to $170 per ton. By 1884, in contrast, iron rails had virtually ceased to be made at all; steel rails had replaced them at an annual production of 1,500,000 tons selling at a price of $32 per ton. Andrew Carnegie’s genius for lowering production costs would drive prices as low as $14 per ton before the end on the century. (This drop in cost was accompanied by an equally dramatic increase in quality as steel replaced iron rails: from 1865 to 1905, the average life of a rail increased from two years to ten and the car weight a rail could bear increased from eight tons to seventy.)
The Bessemer process did not have the field to itself for long as inventors sought ways around the patents (over 100 of them) held by Henry Bessemer. In the 1860s, a rival appeared on the scene: the open-hearth process, developed primarily by the German engineer Karl Wilhelm Siemens. This process converts iron into steel in a broad, shallow, open-hearth furnace (also called a Siemens gas furnace since it was fueled first by coal gas, later by natural gas) by adding wrought iron or iron oxide to molten pig iron until the carbon content is reduced by dilution and oxidation. Using exhaust gases to preheat air and gas prior to combustion, the Siemens furnace could achieve very high temperatures. As with Bessemer converters, the use of basic materials such as limestone in open-hearth furnaces helps to remove phosphorus from the molten metal (a modification called the basic open-hearth process). Unlike the Bessemer converter, which makes steel in one volcanic rush, the open-hearth process takes hours and allows for periodic laboratory testing of the molten steel so that steel can be made to the precise specifications of the customer as to chemical composition and mechanical properties. The open hearth process also allows for the production of larger batches of steel than the Bessemer process and the recycling of scrap metal. Because of these advantages, by 1900 the open hearth process had largely replaced the Bessemer process. (After 1960, it was in turn replaced by the basic oxygen process, a modification of the Bessemer process, in the production of steel from iron ore, and by the electric-arc furnace in the production of steel from scrap.)
Unlike many of his competitors, Andrew Carnegie was quick to recognize the importance of the Bessemer, Thomas basic, and open-hearth processes. He was also among the first steelmakers to grasp the vital importance of chemistry in steelmaking. These became keys to his success as a steel manufacturer.
The mass production of cheap steel, made possible by the discoveries described above (and many others not mentioned), has revolutionized our world. Consider a brief and incomplete list of the products made possible (or better or more affordable) by cheap, abundant steel: railroads, oil and gas pipelines, refineries, power plants, power lines, assembly lines, skyscrapers, elevators, subways, bridges, reinforced concrete, automobiles, trucks, buses, trolleys, refrigerators, washing machines, clothes dryers, dishwashers, nails, screws, bolts, nuts, needles, wire, watches, clocks, canned food, battleships, aircraft carriers, oil tankers, ocean freighters, shipping containers, cranes, bulldozers, tractors, farm implements, fences, knives, forks, spoons, scissors, razors, surgical instruments, ball-bearings, turbines, drill bits, saws, and tools of every sort.
One shortcoming of the initial Bessemer process, however, was that it did not remove phosphorus from the pig iron. Phosphorus makes steel excessively brittle. Initially, therefore, the Bessemer process could only be used on pig iron made from phosphorus-free ores. Such ores are relatively scarce and expensive, as they are found in only a few places (e.g. Wales and Sweden, where Bessemer got his iron ore, and upper Michigan). In 1876, the Welshman Sidney Gilchrist Thomas discovered that adding a chemically basic material such as limestone to the converter draws the phosphorus from the pig iron into the slag, which floats to the top of the converter where it can be skimmed off, resulting in phosphorus-free steel.(This is called the basic Bessemer process, or the Thomas basic process.) This crucial discovery meant that vast stores of iron ore from many regions of the world could be used to make pig iron for Bessemer converters, which in turn led to skyrocketing production of cheap steel in Europe and the U.S. In the U.S., for example, in 1867, 460,000 tons of wrought iron rails were made and sold for $83 per ton; only 2550 tons of Bessemer steel rails were made, fetching a price of up to $170 per ton. By 1884, in contrast, iron rails had virtually ceased to be made at all; steel rails had replaced them at an annual production of 1,500,000 tons selling at a price of $32 per ton. Andrew Carnegie’s genius for lowering production costs would drive prices as low as $14 per ton before the end on the century. (This drop in cost was accompanied by an equally dramatic increase in quality as steel replaced iron rails: from 1865 to 1905, the average life of a rail increased from two years to ten and the car weight a rail could bear increased from eight tons to seventy.)
The Bessemer process did not have the field to itself for long as inventors sought ways around the patents (over 100 of them) held by Henry Bessemer. In the 1860s, a rival appeared on the scene: the open-hearth process, developed primarily by the German engineer Karl Wilhelm Siemens. This process converts iron into steel in a broad, shallow, open-hearth furnace (also called a Siemens gas furnace since it was fueled first by coal gas, later by natural gas) by adding wrought iron or iron oxide to molten pig iron until the carbon content is reduced by dilution and oxidation. Using exhaust gases to preheat air and gas prior to combustion, the Siemens furnace could achieve very high temperatures. As with Bessemer converters, the use of basic materials such as limestone in open-hearth furnaces helps to remove phosphorus from the molten metal (a modification called the basic open-hearth process). Unlike the Bessemer converter, which makes steel in one volcanic rush, the open-hearth process takes hours and allows for periodic laboratory testing of the molten steel so that steel can be made to the precise specifications of the customer as to chemical composition and mechanical properties. The open hearth process also allows for the production of larger batches of steel than the Bessemer process and the recycling of scrap metal. Because of these advantages, by 1900 the open hearth process had largely replaced the Bessemer process. (After 1960, it was in turn replaced by the basic oxygen process, a modification of the Bessemer process, in the production of steel from iron ore, and by the electric-arc furnace in the production of steel from scrap.)
Unlike many of his competitors, Andrew Carnegie was quick to recognize the importance of the Bessemer, Thomas basic, and open-hearth processes. He was also among the first steelmakers to grasp the vital importance of chemistry in steelmaking. These became keys to his success as a steel manufacturer.
The mass production of cheap steel, made possible by the discoveries described above (and many others not mentioned), has revolutionized our world. Consider a brief and incomplete list of the products made possible (or better or more affordable) by cheap, abundant steel: railroads, oil and gas pipelines, refineries, power plants, power lines, assembly lines, skyscrapers, elevators, subways, bridges, reinforced concrete, automobiles, trucks, buses, trolleys, refrigerators, washing machines, clothes dryers, dishwashers, nails, screws, bolts, nuts, needles, wire, watches, clocks, canned food, battleships, aircraft carriers, oil tankers, ocean freighters, shipping containers, cranes, bulldozers, tractors, farm implements, fences, knives, forks, spoons, scissors, razors, surgical instruments, ball-bearings, turbines, drill bits, saws, and tools of every sort.
Andrew Carnagie
Andrew Carnegie: Early Life and CareerAndrew Carnegie, whose life became a rags-to-riches story, was born into modest circumstances on November 25, 1835, in Dunfermline, Scotland, the second of two sons of Will, a handloom weaver, and Margaret, who did sewing work for local shoemakers. In 1848, the Carnegie family (who pronounced their name “carNEgie”) moved to America in search of better economic opportunities and settled in Allegheny City (now part of Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania. Andrew Carnegie, whose formal education ended when he left Scotland, where he had no more than a few years’ schooling, soon found employment as a bobbin boy at a cotton factory, earning $1.20 a week.
Ambitious and hard-working, he went on to hold a series of jobs, including messenger in a telegraph office and secretary and telegraph operator for the superintendent of the Pittsburgh division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1859, Carnegie succeeded his boss as railroad division superintendent. While in this position, he made profitable investments in a variety of businesses, including coal, iron and oil companies and a manufacturer of railroad sleeping cars.
After leaving his post with the railroad in 1865, Carnegie continued his ascent in the business world. With the U.S. railroad industry then entering a period of rapid growth, he expanded his railroad-related investments and founded such ventures as an iron bridge building company and a telegraph firm, often using his connections to win insider contracts. By the time he was in his early 30s, Carnegie had become a very wealthy man.
Andrew Carnegie: Steel MagnateIn the early 1870s, Carnegie co-founded his first steel company, near Pittsburgh. Over the next few decades, he created a steel empire, maximizing profits and minimizing inefficiencies through ownership of factories, raw materials and transportation infrastructure involved in steel-making. In 1892, his primary holdings were consolidated to form Carnegie Steel Company.
The steel magnate considered himself a champion of the working man; however, his reputation was marred by a violent labor strike in 1892 at his Homestead, Pennsylvania, steel mill. After union workers protested wage cuts, Carnegie Steel general manager Henry Clay Frick (1848-1919), who was determined to break the union, locked the workers out of the plant. Andrew Carnegie was on vacation in Scotland during the strike, but put his support in Frick, who called in some 300 Pinkerton armed guards to protect the plant. A bloody battle broke out between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, leaving at least 10 men dead. The state militia then was brought in to take control of the town, union leaders were arrested and Frick hired replacement workers for the plant. After five months, the strike ended with the union’s defeat. Additionally, the labor movement at Pittsburgh-area steel mills was crippled for the next four decades.
In 1901, banker John Pierpont Morgan (1837-1913) purchased Carnegie Steel for some $480 million, making Andrew Carnegie one of the world’s richest men. That same year, Morgan merged Carnegie Steel with a group of other steel businesses to form U.S. Steel, the world’s first billion-dollar corporation
Andrew Carnegie: PhilanthropistAfter Carnegie sold his steel company, the diminutive titan, who stood 5’3”, retired from business and devoted himself full-time to philanthropy. In 1889, he had penned an essay, “The Gospel of Wealth,” in which he stated that the rich have “a moral obligation to distribute [their money] in ways that promote the welfare and happiness of the common man.” Carnegie also said that “The man who dies thus rich dies disgraced.”
Carnegie eventually gave away some $350 million (the equivalent of billions in today’s dollars), which represented the bulk of his wealth. Among his philanthropic activities, he funded the establishment of more than 2,500 public libraries around the globe, donated more than 7,600 organs to churches worldwide and endowed organizations (many still in existence today) dedicated to research in science, education, world peace and other causes. Among his gifts was the $1.1 million required for the land and construction costs of Carnegie Hall, the legendary New York City concert venue that opened in 1891.
Andrew Carnegie: Family and Final YearsCarnegie’s mother, who was a major influence in his life, lived with him until her death in 1886. The following year, the 51-year-old industrial baron married Louise Whitfield (1857-1946), who was two decades his junior and the daughter of a New York City merchant. The couple had one child, Margaret (1897-1990). The Carnegies lived in a Manhattan mansion and spent summers in Scotland, where they owned Skibo Castle, set on some 28,000 acres.
Carnegie died at age 83 on August 11, 1919, at Shadowbrook, his estate in Lenox, Massachusetts. He was buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in North Tarrytown, New York.
Ambitious and hard-working, he went on to hold a series of jobs, including messenger in a telegraph office and secretary and telegraph operator for the superintendent of the Pittsburgh division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1859, Carnegie succeeded his boss as railroad division superintendent. While in this position, he made profitable investments in a variety of businesses, including coal, iron and oil companies and a manufacturer of railroad sleeping cars.
After leaving his post with the railroad in 1865, Carnegie continued his ascent in the business world. With the U.S. railroad industry then entering a period of rapid growth, he expanded his railroad-related investments and founded such ventures as an iron bridge building company and a telegraph firm, often using his connections to win insider contracts. By the time he was in his early 30s, Carnegie had become a very wealthy man.
Andrew Carnegie: Steel MagnateIn the early 1870s, Carnegie co-founded his first steel company, near Pittsburgh. Over the next few decades, he created a steel empire, maximizing profits and minimizing inefficiencies through ownership of factories, raw materials and transportation infrastructure involved in steel-making. In 1892, his primary holdings were consolidated to form Carnegie Steel Company.
The steel magnate considered himself a champion of the working man; however, his reputation was marred by a violent labor strike in 1892 at his Homestead, Pennsylvania, steel mill. After union workers protested wage cuts, Carnegie Steel general manager Henry Clay Frick (1848-1919), who was determined to break the union, locked the workers out of the plant. Andrew Carnegie was on vacation in Scotland during the strike, but put his support in Frick, who called in some 300 Pinkerton armed guards to protect the plant. A bloody battle broke out between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, leaving at least 10 men dead. The state militia then was brought in to take control of the town, union leaders were arrested and Frick hired replacement workers for the plant. After five months, the strike ended with the union’s defeat. Additionally, the labor movement at Pittsburgh-area steel mills was crippled for the next four decades.
In 1901, banker John Pierpont Morgan (1837-1913) purchased Carnegie Steel for some $480 million, making Andrew Carnegie one of the world’s richest men. That same year, Morgan merged Carnegie Steel with a group of other steel businesses to form U.S. Steel, the world’s first billion-dollar corporation
Andrew Carnegie: PhilanthropistAfter Carnegie sold his steel company, the diminutive titan, who stood 5’3”, retired from business and devoted himself full-time to philanthropy. In 1889, he had penned an essay, “The Gospel of Wealth,” in which he stated that the rich have “a moral obligation to distribute [their money] in ways that promote the welfare and happiness of the common man.” Carnegie also said that “The man who dies thus rich dies disgraced.”
Carnegie eventually gave away some $350 million (the equivalent of billions in today’s dollars), which represented the bulk of his wealth. Among his philanthropic activities, he funded the establishment of more than 2,500 public libraries around the globe, donated more than 7,600 organs to churches worldwide and endowed organizations (many still in existence today) dedicated to research in science, education, world peace and other causes. Among his gifts was the $1.1 million required for the land and construction costs of Carnegie Hall, the legendary New York City concert venue that opened in 1891.
Andrew Carnegie: Family and Final YearsCarnegie’s mother, who was a major influence in his life, lived with him until her death in 1886. The following year, the 51-year-old industrial baron married Louise Whitfield (1857-1946), who was two decades his junior and the daughter of a New York City merchant. The couple had one child, Margaret (1897-1990). The Carnegies lived in a Manhattan mansion and spent summers in Scotland, where they owned Skibo Castle, set on some 28,000 acres.
Carnegie died at age 83 on August 11, 1919, at Shadowbrook, his estate in Lenox, Massachusetts. He was buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in North Tarrytown, New York.
US Steel
Formation J. P. Morgan and the attorney Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 (incorporated on February 25) by combining Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company with Gary'sFormationJ. P. Morgan and the attorney Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 (incorporated on February 25) by combining Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company with Gary's Federal Steel Company and William Henry "Judge" Moore's National Steel Company[5] for $492 million ($13.74 billion today). It was capitalized at $1.4 billion ($39.11 billion today),[2] making it the world's first billion-dollar corporation.[6] At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company which was headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama. This led to Tennessee Coal's being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company.[4] The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U.S. Steel in 1911, but that effort ultimately failed. Time and competitors have, however, accomplished nearly the same thing. In its first full year of operation, U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. It now produces less than 10 percent.
The Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street,[2] always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production.[2] Because of heavy debts taken on at the company's formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U.S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U.S. Steel's former first president, Charles M. Schwab. U.S. Steel's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911.[2] Federal Steel Company and William Henry "Judge" Moore's National Steel Company[5] for $492 million ($13.74 billion today). It was capitalized at $1.4 billion ($39.11 billion today),[2]making it the world's first billion-dollar corporation.[6] At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Companywhich was headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama. This led to Tennessee Coal's being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company.[4] The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U.S. Steel in 1911, but that effort ultimately failed. Time and competitors have, however, accomplished nearly the same thing. In its first full year of operation, U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. It now produces less than 10 percent.
The Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street,[2] always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production.[2] Because of heavy debts taken on at the company's formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U.S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U.S. Steel's former first president, Charles M. Schwab. U.S. Steel's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911.[2]
The Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street,[2] always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production.[2] Because of heavy debts taken on at the company's formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U.S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U.S. Steel's former first president, Charles M. Schwab. U.S. Steel's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911.[2] Federal Steel Company and William Henry "Judge" Moore's National Steel Company[5] for $492 million ($13.74 billion today). It was capitalized at $1.4 billion ($39.11 billion today),[2]making it the world's first billion-dollar corporation.[6] At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Companywhich was headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama. This led to Tennessee Coal's being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company.[4] The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U.S. Steel in 1911, but that effort ultimately failed. Time and competitors have, however, accomplished nearly the same thing. In its first full year of operation, U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. It now produces less than 10 percent.
The Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street,[2] always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production.[2] Because of heavy debts taken on at the company's formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U.S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U.S. Steel's former first president, Charles M. Schwab. U.S. Steel's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911.[2]